How should the Japanese anti-hero be defined? Quite unlike the stereotype of a hero, the anti-hero is an outcast and a vagabond. Though he may appear to be an uncouth, self-interested ronin (masterless samurai), the unlikely protagonist struggles to bring about a kind of "heroic transformation of [his] world."² Caught in a world of social disintegration, his values and choice of actions are put to the test. It should be noted, however, that this particular concept of heroism is one that breaks the tradition of cultural identity and group orientation, thus condemned by Japanese society. If the hero as an individual is unacceptable by Japanese standards, then the anti-hero as a nonconformist should receive an even more critical analysis.

With memorable characters such as Kikuchiyo (Shichinin no samurai) and Sanjuro (Yojimbo), the director-actor collaboration between Kurosawa and Mifune epitomized and internationalized the image of the Japanese ronin and anti-hero. Kurosawa’s jidai-geki celebrate "nonconformity and the rejection of authority"³ during the turbulent times of civil war and social corruption: a reflection of the Japanese postwar attitude during the Occupation era.

Rashomon (1950), Kurosawa’s first postwar jidai-geki, stars Mifune as the notorious bandit Tajomaru. Based on two short stories by Japanese novelist Akutagawa, Ryunosuke, Rashomon, as Kurosawa said himself, "goes into the depths of the human heart as if with a surgeon’s scalpel, laying bare its dark complexities and bizarre twists." Mifune’s character Tajomaru is accused of rape and murder in Rashomon, and four witnesses (the bandit, the wife, the dead samurai through a medium, and a woodcutter) are asked to recount the same event by a High Police Commissioner.

Despite the crime Tajomaru is accused of, the bandit does in fact fit the image (but not the nature) of the anti-hero. Tajomaru appears to be a "half-clad savage, uncouth, insolent, and raucous;"⁴ he is a self-interested outlaw who rejects the established codes of the feudal system. Tajomaru represents "the unrestrained pursuit of one’s own interest at the expense of another’s,"⁵ as his desire for the samurai’s wife, according to the bandit’s testimony, results in the violation of the woman, Masago, and the death of her husband, Takehiro. Despite the atrocity of Tajomaru’s crime, the bandit’s account of the event is far more congruent to the woodcutter’s version than the accounts given by the wife and the dead samurai. Consider the different accounts given by the three participants of the same event: it is the woodcutter’s (delayed) statement as a non-participating witness that confirms the bandit’s deposition. We consistently learn that Tajomaru had no intention of killing the husband unless he had to, and that it was in fair combat, almost in self-defense, that the samurai was struck down. Although Tajomaru’s supposed honesty does not justify his cruel actions, it does bring the audience closer to him in understanding. One would hope for more evidence of Tajomaru’s "innocence" with every retelling of the event, and it is perhaps the woodcutter’s final version that justifies the bandit’s act of self-defense.

Thus far, we have discussed Tajomaru in the context of the anti-hero – the good bad guy. Mifune’s character as the bandit, however, represents more than the "exultations and atonements of the individual,"⁶ but also a kind of "incarnation of the oni, or ogre, of Japanese folklore... terrifying and ridiculous, but always alien to the others."⁷ As a rebel and outlaw of society, Tajomaru can be seen as a representation of the foreigner who puts an end to the samurai’s life (the samurai naturally represents the way of the Japanese, unspoiled by Western ideals and modernization). The combat that occurs between the samurai and the bandit, a moment of self-defense or death, is representative of an event when "the moral authority of society [is] weakened,"⁸ resulting in the survival of Tajomaru, the "foreigner," and the defeat of the samurai.

Although Mifune’s first jidai-geki role with Kurosawa is an antithesis of bushido (the warrior code of the samurai), Tajomaru’s ronin image inspired Mifune’s trademark look as Kurosawa’s ultimate samurai and historical anti-hero. Consider Mifune’s role as Kikuchiyo in Shichinin no samurai, a jidai-geki set in sixteenth century Japan, during the Sengoku-jidai (period of Civil War). As in Rashomon, Mifune’s character is alienated in Shichinin no samurai: Kikuchiyo is a farmer’s son and a warrior, thus he is neither a peasant nor a samurai, but simply an outcast. Shichinin no samurai, as a film concerning the "validity... and continuing meaning of the historical,"⁹ is Kurosawa’s exploration of heroism and individualism in a time of turbulence. Mifune’s character in Shichinin no samurai questions the position of the social-self during the Sengoku era in relation to Japanese postwar culture. As a farmer’s son, he is a commoner who crosses the line between peasant and samurai; Kikuchiyo represents the re-identification of Japanese culture during a time of historical change.

As "class identity, relations, and conflict are all central to samurai film,"¹⁰ Kurosawa’s Shichinin no samurai is no exception. It is a story that examines the relationship and tensions between three very different groups: farmers, samurai, and bandits. As a village anticipates the threat of bandits, they make a decision to hire masterless samurai for protection. All they can offer the samurai, however, is food and a place to sleep, and Kambei, a dedicated swordsman, is the first to accept this proposition. Kambei eventually receives the assistance of five other honorable samurai, as well as that of a peasant’s son claiming to be a warrior, Kikuchiyo. Together, seven samurai have been mobilized.

Although Kikuchiyo is seen as a nothing more than an insolent fool at first, he is essentially the main anti-hero of Shichinin no samurai. Kikuchiyo is the triangle on Heihachi’s war banner, while the other samurai are drawn as circles, for he is the "special" one: he is a farmer’s son, a warrior, and a rebel who "has never forgotten the enmity traditional not only between farmer and bandit, but also farmer and samurai."¹¹ Upon the discovery of hidden armor in the village, Kikuchiyo is excited to share them with his comrades, but they react bitterly as they know that the armor was stolen from murdered samurai. Kikuchiyo does not hesitate to scold them, reminding them of the deeds of misconduct committed by samurai against farmers throughout history. Though the samurai respond with a guilty silence, they now understand Kikuchiyo’s past: "You’re a farmer’s son, aren’t you?" Kambei asks him. He may be a farmer’s son, but he is also a "man who is drawn to [the samurai’s] honor code, camaraderie, and lust for adventure."¹²

As an individualist and self-made warrior, Kikuchiyo represents "Western humanism and Eastern jinkara (personality) and seishin (spirituality)."¹³ Unlike the samurai, Kikuchiyo is not bound by the laws of bushido, and yet he chooses to make the village’s cause his own; he makes a selfless decision to serve humanity, as would the ideal samurai. Keeping in mind bushido’s cultural dominance in Japan, Kikuchiyo should not be defined as a result of Western influence, as Mifune’s character, like most of Kurosawa’s heroes, is essentially a reflection of the "ideals of the samurai warrior: courage, integrity, fortitude, and fealty."¹⁴

As Kurosawa once said, "The Japanese see self-assertion as immoral and self-sacrifice as the sensible course to take in life,"¹⁵ Kikuchiyo proves to be an interesting exemplification of both standards. At one point, Kambei admonishes Kikuchiyo for attacking the bandits on his own, condemning Kikuchiyo’s lack of respect for the samurai ideal of group orientation. And yet, it is Kikuchiyo who ultimately hunts down and kills the chief bandit, resulting in his own death: though born farmer’s son, Kikuchiyo dies a warrior’s death.

In Shichinin no samurai, Kurosawa portrays the samurai as honorable individuals – as a class, however, the samurai are deemed destructive and untrustworthy. It should be noted that even though the seven samurai are fighting against bandits, they are in fact killing their own kind. The bandits are masterless samurai, "fallen on hard times, and by destroying them, Kambei and his compatriots are annihilating their own class."¹⁶ Thus, similar to Rashomon, Shichinin no samurai embodies an awareness for the changing codes of bushido and Japanese culture, as it investigates the significance of the historical in relevance to contemporary Japan. Although the samurai in the film are glorified by the warrior ideal, they are also vilified because of the corruption of their class – the bandits, who represent the disintegration of social ideals and the dangerous "foreigner" with firearms.

As Shichinin no samurai translates "the samurai’s obligation to serve his lord into the hero’s obligation to serve humanity,"¹⁷ Kurosawa’s chambara (sword fight) films reveal a similar intention. Set in the Meiji era of social and cultural reformation, Yojimbo introduces Mifune’s character (Sanjuro, Kuwabatake) as the ultimate "superhuman" and anti-hero of Kurosawa’s chambara films. Inspired by the seibu-geki (the American Western), the character of Sanjuro proves to be a mix of history and myth. Yojimbo brings together the historical moment of the Meiji Restoration and the heroic individual. The film opens:

The time is 1860... the emergence of a middle class has brought about the end to power of Tokugawa Dynasty. The Samurai, once a dedicated warrior in the employ of Royalty, now finds himself with no master to serve other than his own will to survive... and no devices other than his wit and sword.

Sanjuro, a vagabond samurai, finds himself in a town that is being torn apart by two rival merchants. Sanjuro cannot help but notice the terror that fills the lives of the townsfolk, and so decides to enter the battle, perhaps only for the "fun" of it (but more likely because of his nature to follow the path of bushido). The lone samurai is able to manipulate both gangs with the promise of his services as their yojimbo (bodyguard), and the result is the annihilation of both sides. As Sanjuro remarked, "Now it’ll be quiet in this town."

The small town Sanjuro wanders into is but a microcosm of contemporary Japan, consumed by Western capitalism and influence. Sanjuro is the "youthful, idealistic hero [who is] capable of beating a pistol and besting ten men in a massacre,"¹⁸ putting an end to the town’s corruption with his sword. Compared to Rashomon or Shichinin no samurai, there is less of a compromise between the individual (self) and the turbulence and civil disorder of society in Yojimbo, as Mifune’s character provides the fantasy of defeating the West, rather than reminding the audience of postwar Japan to adapt to Western influence. Although the character of Sanjuro "violates samurai etiquette, as does his habit of asking for money,"¹⁹ Mifune’s character is a promotion of a strong, rebellious protagonist and role model for postwar Japan. As Kurosawa’s jidai-geki bring about a language between class and the individual, Yojimbo acknowledges the troubled times of Japan as a chance for the lower classes to gain independence and opportunities for self-advancement.

As a "master of conflicting opposites,"²⁰ Kurosawa’s cinema proves to be "a turbulent one, beset by tensions between pre-modern and modern values, between Eastern and Western traditions."²¹ Kurosawa was most admired for his ability to create universal and timeless films, in the sense that his stories are in touch with Eastern and Western audiences alike. Though Kurosawa was considered one of the most "Western" of Japanese directors, he was never fond of this international reputation, as he once commented:

Japanese critics insisted that [the prizes won for Rashomon] were simply reflections of Westerners’ curiosity and taste for Oriental exoticism, which struck me then, and now, as terrible... Why is it that Japanese people have no confidence in the worth of Japan? Why do they elevate everything foreign and denigrate everything Japanese?... I don’t know how to explain this lack of discernment. I can only despair of the character of my own people.²²

What made Kurosawa stand out from other Japanese directors was his willingness to recognize the "facets [of Japanese adaptability and imbecility that] exist in the Japanese personality,"²³ and the very portrayal of this in his works. Kurosawa’s presentation of the individual within a historic moment can be compared to the re-identification and growing awareness of one’s heritage during a time of change (postwar Japan). As Kurosawa’s anti-heroes promoted the rejection of authority, they also boosted the morale for postwar Japan. Kurosawa’s films show how "the pursuit of the self alone in the private interest"²⁴ can also be a pursuit of cultural identity. It is no wonder that Mifune was "always aware that he was representing Japan to the world,"²⁵ as he "expressed the best of Japanese pride, power, and virility."²⁶

As the Kurosawa-Mifune collaboration created the genre called the "Eastern Western", the Japanese anti-hero became a bridge between the East and West. Kurosawa once said, "The Western and the Japanese live side by side in my mind naturally, without the least sense of conflict,"²⁷ as he adopted this attitude in the spirit of a Japanese person living in postwar Japan. Though Kurosawa was a director influenced by American cinema, he was above all "truly Japanese," as the filmmaker himself has stated. Kurosawa’s invention of the Japanese anti-hero and the re-invention of the samurai genre essentially encouraged the people of postwar Japan to endure and adapt to Western influences, without forgetting their own heritage – a filmmaker’s call to secure the survival of the samurai and the Japanese way.